Women of the Mills
This International Women’s Day we are recognising the vital role many working women played during the height of linen production in Belfast in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The rivers of the Belfast Hills drove the industrial revolution of the city below. The ability to harness their power signalled the start of the industrial development of Belfast with the establishment of various mills, factories and bleach greens. By the late 1800s the city had gained the nickname ‘Linenopolis’ due to the scale of production and exportation of linen. It was not just the linen capital of Ireland, Belfast was the linen capital of the world.
The development of various mills, reservoirs, dams, factories and textile works meant that a string of mill villages sprung up along the foothills of the Belfast Hills. These included Ligoniel, Ballysillan and Collin. These villages were populated with thousands of migrants from the local countryside looking for work. Many people from Belfast have a connection to mills in their ancestry.
Women Workers of the Mills
History often focuses on the men who ran these mills – such as the McCances, Hunters and Barbours. No linen company in Belfast was run by a woman. This is a reflection of the patriarchal nature of society at this time. And yet, women played a pivotal role in the surge of this industry – making up to 70% of the workforce in mills by 1895. The term ‘Millie’ derives from the ‘mill girls’ of the Victorian era. Without the skilled contribution of these workers the linen industry may not have reached the heights that it did in Belfast.
It is easy to look back and romanticise the life of the ‘Millies’, but workers endured tough conditions, both at work and at home. They worked long hours in overcrowded, hot and damp factories. These were breeding grounds for disease and bacteria. After a day’s work they returned to overcrowded houses which were plagued with damp. Wages were so meagre that oftentimes women had to work during the later stages of pregnancy. They also returned to the factory floor as soon as possible. Despite rife pre- and post-natal illnesses, premature births and miscarriages the women were rarely absent from work for any length of time due to economic necessity. Missing a day of work meant missing a day of wages.
Growing Discontent
Growing discontent with working conditions and cuts to wages eventually resulted in workers unionising and striking. Whilst this started off on a relatively small scale, the movement began to gain momentum in 1874 with a massive meeting of 10,000 striking female workers gathering at Ross’s Mill on the Falls Road.
The trade union movement united people of all genders, religious denominations and political persuasions in the fight for better wages at this time. Unfortunately, the strike was not successful in granting workers their requests despite their efforts, due to their impoverishment. Working conditions also did not improve and illness remained rife amongst mill workers.
Another significant strike took place in 1911. The introduction of strict rules, such as punishment for singing on the factory floor, caused widespread discontent that lead to a mass walkout. Unfortunately, the bosses would not negotiate so the women took a different tactical approach under the guidance of James Connolly. They returned to the factory and chose to ignore the rules, facing punishment. If one worker sang and faced punishment, then all sang. If one worker was sacked, all workers walked out. The resulting chaos from this unified approach by the workers meant the rules were thus abolished.
A Lasting Legacy
The linen industry eventually began to decline in Belfast, with mills beginning to close during the 1900s. The final mill in Belfast, Copeland Linens, closed in 2013. Linen is woven into the history of the city, and is one that is intrinsically linked with generations of the women of the city whose names might not have survived but whose legacy certainly lives on.